What Causes The Accumulation Of Fluids In Tissues And How Does This Fluid Become Lymph?
At one point or another we have all bumped our heads, stubbed our toes or had a mosquito bite. We all know the result which is swelling or inflammation. Using the medical terminology that you’ve learned this week discussed the following questions.
What causes the accumulation of fluids in tissues and how does this fluid become lymph?
The initial discussion post must be at least 250 words of content, referencing the reading of the week, and include a scholarly source.
Lymphatic and Immune Systems
Chapter 6
Related Combining Forms
| Structure | Related Combining Forms |
| Lymph | lymph/o |
| Lymphatic vessels and ducts | lymphangi/o |
| Lymph nodes | lymphaden/o |
| Tonsils and adenoids | tonsill/o, adenoid/o |
| Spleen | splen/o |
| Bone marrow | myel/o |
| Lymphocytes | lymphocyt/o |
| Thymus | thym/o |
Functions of Lymphatic System
Three main functions
Absorption of fats and fat-soluble vitamins through lacteals of small intestine
Removal of waste products and tissues, and cooperation with the immune system in destroying invading pathogens
Returning filtered lymph to veins at the base of the neck
Absorption of Fats and Fat-Soluble Vitamins
Villi located in small intestine contain lacteals and blood vessels
Lacteals are specialized to absorb fats not transported by the bloodstream
Lymphatic vessels return them to venous circulation to be used throughout the body as nutrients
Interstitial Fluid and Lymph
Interstitial fluid
Plasma from arterial blood that delivers nutrients, oxygen, and hormones to cells
90% of this fluid returns to the bloodstream
Lymph
Remaining 10% of interstitial fluid
Contains electrolytes and proteins
Structures of Lymphatic System
Structures of Lymphatic System
Lymphatic circulation
Depends on pumping motion of muscles to move fluid upward
Flows in only one direction (upward to the circulatory system at the base of the neck)
Vessels are not visible, since lymph is a clear fluid
Structures of Lymphatic System
Lymphatic capillaries
Microscopic, blind-ended tubes near the surface of the body
Brief separation of cells in capillary walls allows lymph to enter capillary
Closing of these cells in capillary walls forces lymph to flow upward and forward
Structures of Lymphatic System
Structures of Lymphatic System
Lymphatic vessels and ducts
Valves prevent backward flow of lymph
Larger lymphatic vessels join to form two ducts
Right lymphatic duct collects lymph from right side of head and neck, upper right quadrant of the body, and right arm and empties into right subclavian vein
Structures of Lymphatic System
Lymphatic vessels and ducts
Thoracic duct collects lymph from left side of head and neck, upper left quadrant of trunk, the left arm, lower portion of trunk, and both legs and empties into left subclavian vein
Structures of Lymphatic System
Lymph nodes
Specialized lymphocytes capable of destroying pathogens
Three major groups
Cervical lymph nodes located along sides of neck
Axillary lymph nodes located under the arms
(axill: armpit)
Inguinal lymph nodes located in the inguinal area of lower abdomen
(inguin: groin)
Structures of Lymphatic System
Lymphocytes
(lymph/o: lymph; -cytes: cells)
Leukocytes formed in bone marrow as stem cells
Assist in defending body against antigens
Three types:
Natural killer cells (aid in killing cancer cells)
B cells (produce antibodies)
T cells (play a role in cell-mediated immunity)
T Cells
Cytokines
Group of proteins released primarily by T cells
Begin the immune response
Interferons
Produced in response to antigens
Interleukins
Direct B and T cells to divide and proliferate
Additional Structures of Lymphatic System
Additional Structures of Lymphatic System
Some structures are made up of lymphoid tissue
Tonsils
Types include adenoids, palatine tonsils, and lingual tonsils
Form protective ring around the back of the nose and upper throat
Prevent pathogens from entering respiratory system
Additional Structures of Lymphatic System
Additional Structures of Lymphatic System
Thymus gland
Located above the heart
Reaches greatest size at puberty and decreases in size with age
Vermiform appendix
Hangs over lower portion of cecum
Exact purpose unknown, but may play role in immune system
Additional Structures of Lymphatic System
Spleen
Located in left upper quadrant of the abdomen just below the diaphragm and behind the stomach
Numerous functions include but not limited to
Filtering of microorganisms and other foreign material from blood
Formation of lymphocytes and monocytes
Additional Structures of Lymphatic System
Functions and Structures of Immune System
Protects the body from pathogens, allergens, toxins, or malignant cells
Destruction of harmful substances that enter the body
Identification and attack on antigens
Immune System’s First Line of Defense
Intact skin
Physical barrier against invading organisms
Respiratory system
Nose hair and moist mucous membranes trap breathed-in foreign matter
Immune System’s First Line of Defense
Digestive system
Uses acids/enzymes to destroy invaders that are swallowed or consumed with food
Lymphatic system
Specialized leukocytes attack and destroy pathogens that have succeeded in entering the body
The Antigen–Antibody Reaction
Binding of antigens to antibodies
Labels potentially dangerous antigen so that it is recognized and destroyed
Tolerance
Acquires unresponsiveness to specific antigen
Antibody
Disease-fighting proteins
Immunoglobulins
Bind with specific antigens in antigen–antibody response
Five primary types
Immunoglobulin G (in blood serum and lymph)
Immunoglobulin A (produced against ingested antigens)
Immunoglobulins
Primary types
Immunoglobulin M (found in circulating body fluids)
Immunoglobulin D (found only on the surface of B cells)
Immunoglobulin E (produced in lungs, skin, and mucous membranes; responsible for allergic reactions)
Phagocytes
Specialized leukocytes acting as part of the antigen–antibody reaction
Destroy cell debris, dust, pollen, and pathogens by phagocytosis
(phag/o: to eat or swallow)
Include monocytes, macrophages (macro-: large; -phage: a cell that eats), dendritic cells
Complement System
Group of proteins normally circulating in blood in inactive form
Combine with antibodies to dissolve and remove pathogenic bacteria and other foreign cells when needed
Immunity
State of being resistant to a specific disease
Natural immunity
Resistance to disease is present without administration of antigen or exposure to disease
Present at birth or is passed from mother to child through breast milk
Immunity
Acquired immunity
Obtained by
Having had a contagious disease
Being vaccinated against a contagious disease
Boost vaccination may be required
Medical Specialties Related to Lymphatic/Immune Systems
Allergist
Diagnoses and treats conditions of altered immunologic reactivity, such as allergic reactions
Immunologist
(immune: protected; -ologist: specialist)
Diagnoses and treats disorders of immune system
Medical Specialties Related to Lymphatic/Immune Systems
Lymphologist
(lymph: lymphatic system)
Diagnoses and treats disorders of the lymphatic system
Oncologist
(onc: tumor)
Diagnoses and treats malignant disorders
Pathology and Diagnostic Procedures (Lymphatic)
Lymphadenitis
(lymphaden: lymph nodes)
Inflammation of lymph nodes
Lymphadenopathy (lymphaden/o: lymph node)
Any disease affecting lymph nodes
Lymphangioma (lymph: lymph; angi: lymph vessel; -oma: tumor)
Benign tumor; abnormal collection of lymphatic vessels; congenital malformation
Pathology and Diagnostic Procedures (Lymphatic)
Ruptured spleen
Medical emergency
Covering of spleen is torn
Splenorrhagia
(splen/o: spleen; -rrhagia: bleeding)
Bleeding from spleen
Pathology and Diagnostic Procedures (Lymphatic)
Splenomegaly
(splen/o: spleen; -megaly: enlargement)
Abnormal enlargement of spleen
Lymphoscintigraphy
Diagnostic test to detect damage or malformations of lymphatic vessels
Pathology and Diagnostic Procedures (Lymphatic)
Lymphedema (lymph: lymph; edema: swelling)
Swelling of tissues due to accumulation of lymph fluid within the tissues due to inadequate draining of lymph
Often associated with infections
Primary lymphedema
Hereditary; swelling begins in feet and progresses upward along the legs
Secondary lymphedema
Due to damage to lymphatic vessels
Pathology and Diagnostic Procedures (Lymphatic)
Bioimpedance spectroscopy
Noninvasive method of diagnosing lymphedema
Measures resistance to electrical current passed along the affected limb
Pathology and Diagnostic Procedures (Immune System)
Allergic reaction
Body’s immune system reacts to a harmless allergen as if it were a dangerous invader
Allergy
Overreaction by body to particular antigen
Allergen
Substance producing allergic reaction
Pathology and Diagnostic Procedures (Immune System)
Localized allergic response
Redness, itching, burning where skin came into contact with allergen
Systemic reaction
Severe response to allergen
Also known as anaphylaxis
Medical emergency
Pathology and Diagnostic Procedures (Immune System)
Scratch test
Diagnostic test to identify common allergies
Allergen-specific immunoglobulin
Blood test to determine if person is allergic to a particular substance
Antihistamines
Medications to relieve or prevent symptoms of certain allergies
Pathology and Diagnostic Procedures (Immune System)
Autoimmune disorders
Group of diseases
Immune system produces antibodies against its own tissues
May be genetic
Pathology and Diagnostic Procedures (Immune System)
Immunodeficiency disorders
Severe combined immunodeficiency
Inherited
Increased susceptibility to infections and failure to thrive due to infections
Pathology and Diagnostic Procedures (Immune System)
Immunodeficiency disorders
HIV (human immunodeficiency virus)
Blood borne infection
Damages T cells
Causes increased risk of opportunistic infections
Acquired immunodeficiency syndrome
Most advanced and fatal stage of HIV infection
No cure
Treatment: combinations of antiretroviral drugs
Pathology and Diagnostic Procedures (Immune System)
Kaposi’s sarcoma
Opportunistic disease frequently associated with HIV
ELISA (enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay)
Screens for presence of HIV antibodies
Western blot test
Produces more accurate results than ELISA
Treatment of Immune System
Immunotherapy
(immun/o: immune; -therapy: treatment)
Stimulating or repressing the immune response
Treatment of cancers: immune response is stimulated to fight malignancy
Treatment of allergies: body’s sensitivity to a particular allergen is repressed
Treatment of Immune System
Antibody therapy
Synthetic immunoglobulins
Postexposure preventive measure
Synthetic interferon
Treatment of multiple sclerosis, hepatitis C, and some cancers
Monoclonal antibodies
Antibodies produced in laboratory by identical offspring of clone of specific cells
Treatment of Immune System
Immunosuppression
Immunosuppressant
Prevents/reduces body’s normal immune response
Corticosteroid drug
Hormone-like drug used as anti-inflammatory and immunosuppressant
Cytotoxic drug
(cyt/o: cell; tox: poison; -ic: pertaining to)
Medication that kills or damages cells
Pathogenic Organisms
Bacteria
One-celled microscopic organism
Most are not pathogenic
Pathogenic bacteria include, but not limited to
Bacilli (rod-shaped spore-forming bacteria)
(bacilli: rod shaped)
Anthrax (transmitted through livestock)
Rickettsia (lives in lice, fleas, ticks, and mites)
Spirochetes (spiral-shaped bacteria; capable of movement)
Pathogenic Organisms
Pathogenic bacteria include
Lyme disease (transmitted by bite of a tick)
Staphylococci (group of 30 species shaped like clusters)
(staphyl/o: clusters or bunches of grapes; -cocci: spherical bacteria)
Example
Staphylococcus aureus (infects wounds)
Streptococci (bacteria that form a chain)
(strept/o: twisted chain)
Antibiotic-Resistant Bacteria
Occur when surviving bacteria become resistant to a particular drug
Example
Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus
Difficult to treat; can be fatal
Fungus and Yeast Infections
Fungus
Parasitic organism
Can be harmless or pathogenic
Yeast
Infections occur on skin or mucous membranes in warm, moist area
Caused by pathogenic yeast Candida albicans
Parasites
Plant or animal living on or within another living organism at the expense of that organism
Malaria
Transferred to humans by certain mosquitoes
Toxoplasmosis
Transmitted from pets to humans by contaminated animal feces
Viral Infections
Ebola
Transmitted by contact with any bodily fluid infected with Ebola virus
Influenza
Viral respiratory infections
Measles
Transmitted by respiratory droplets of rubeola virus
Viral Infections
Mumps
Swelling of parotid glands (salivary glands located in front of the ears)
Rubella
Known as German measles or 3-day measles
MMR immunization can prevent measles, mumps, and rubella
Viral Infections
Rabies
Transmitted to human through bite or saliva of infected animal
West Nile virus
Spread to humans by the bite of an infected mosquito
Herpesviruses
Cytomegalovirus
(cyt/o: cell; megal/o: large; vir: virus; -us: singular noun ending)
Found in most body fluids
May cause no symptoms, or may be serious if individual has weakened immune system
Varicella zoster
Causes varicella
Also known as chickenpox
Herpesviruses
Herpes zoster
Acute viral infection
Also known as shingles
Postherpetic neuralgia may occur if nerve fibers are damaged during the outbreak
Epstein–Barr virus
Causes infectious mononucleosis
Medications to Control Infections
Antibiotics
Inhibit growth of, or kill, pathogenic bacterial microorganisms
(anti-:against; bio: life; -tic: pertaining to)
Bactericide
Causes death of bacteria
(bacteri: bacteria; -cide: death)
Medications to Control Infections
Bacteriostatic
Inhibits growth of bacteria
(-static: causing control)
Antifungal
(anti-: against; fung: fungus; -al: pertaining to)
Destroys or inhibits growth of fungi
Antiviral
Used to treat viral infections or to provide temporary immunity
Oncology
Study of prevention, causes, and treatment of tumors and cancer
(onc: tumor; -ology: study of)
Tumors (neoplasm)
(neo-: new or strange; -plasm: formation)
Abnormal growth of body tissue
Benign tumor (not cancerous)
Malignant tumor (cancerous)
Oncology
Angiogenesis
Tumor supports its growth by creating its own blood supply
(angi/o: vessel; -genesis: reproduction)
Antiangiogenesis
Treatment that disrupts the blood supply to the tumor
(anti-: against; angi/o: vessel)
Cancer
Class of diseases characterized by uncontrolled division of cells and ability of these cells to invade other tissues
Metastasis
Process by which cancer is spread to a new site
May occur in the same body system or in another body system at a distance from the primary site
Carcinomas
(carcin: cancer; -oma: tumor)
Malignant tumor occurring in epithelial tissue
Tends to infiltrate and metastasize
Carcinoma in situ remains in original position and does not invade surrounding tissue
Sarcomas
(sarc: flesh; -oma: tumor)
Malignant tumors arising from connective tissues
Hard-tissue sarcomas
Arise from bone or cartilage
Osteosarcoma
(oste/o: bone; sarc: flesh; -oma: tumor)
Sarcomas
Soft-tissue sarcomas
Occur in muscle, fat, fibrous tissue, blood, and lymphatic vessels
Liquid-tissue sarcomas
Arise from blood and lymph
Leukemia
Staging Tumors
Classification of tumors related to progression of disease, potential for response to therapy, and patient’s prognosis
Lymphomas
(lymph: lymph; -oma: tumor)
Malignancies affecting lymphoid tissue
Two most common types
Hodgkin’s lymphoma
Cancer of immune system characterized by presence of Reed–Sternberg cells
Non-Hodgkin’s lymphoma
Category for all lymphomas other than Hodgkin’s lymphoma
Originate in lymphocytes
Breast Cancer
Develops from breast cells, and may metastasize to lymph nodes and other body sites
BRCA1 or BRCA2 genes
Abnormal genes carrying higher risk of breast, ovarian, and certain other cancers
Ductal carcinoma in situ
Breast cancer at its earliest stage
Breast Cancer
Inflammatory breast cancer
Aggressive form of breast cancer
Cancer cells block lymphatic vessels in the skin of the breast
Cannot be detected by mammography
Male breast cancer
May occur in small amount of breast tissue normally present in men
Stages of Breast Cancer
Stage 0
Cancer cells found only in one location
Stage I
Cancer cells are beyond the duct but not in lymph nodes
Stage II
Cancer has reached one to three axillary lymph nodes
Stages of Breast Cancer
Stage III
Cancer has spread to cervical lymph nodes and/or tissue surrounding the breast
Stage IV
Cancer has spread to other organs, such as brain, lungs, liver, bones
Detection of Breast Cancer
Breast self-examination
Self-care procedure
Palpation of the breast
Performed by health care provider for texture, size, and consistency of breast
Mammography
Radiographic examination of breast
(mamm/o: breast; -graphy: the process of producing a picture or record)
Detection of Breast Cancer
Molecular breast imaging
Nuclear medicine technique
Ultrasound
May be a follow-up procedure if abnormality found by mammography
Detection of Breast Cancer
Needle breast biopsy
X-ray or MRI-guided needle removes small samples of tissue for diagnosis and planning of treatment
(bi-: pertaining to life; -opsy: view of)
Detection of Breast Cancer
Surgical biopsy
Removal of small amount of tissue for examination and to confirm diagnosis
Sentinel node biopsy
Biopsy of first lymph node to come in contact with the cancer cells
Lymph node dissection
Removal of lymph nodes to determine or slow the spread of cancer
Surgical Treatment of Breast Cancer
Lumpectomy
Removal of only the cancerous tissue with surrounding margin of normal tissue
Mastectomy
Removal of breast and nipple
(mast: breast; -ectomy: surgical removal)
May be radical or modified radical
Breast Reconstruction
Immediate breast reconstruction
Begins during same surgery as the mastectomy
Delayed breast reconstruction
Performed after completion of radiation therapy
Cancer Treatments
Surgery
Removal of malignancy plus margin of surrounding tissue
Chemotherapy
Use of chemical agents, such as antineoplastic or cytotoxic medications
Radiation therapy
Use of brachytherapy, teletherapy, or tomotherapy
Additional Cancer Treatment Therapies
Targeted therapy
Uses substances to identify/attack specific cancer cells without harming normal cells
Adjuvant therapy
Used after primary treatments are completed to decrease risk of recurrence
Clinical trials
Testing new cancer treatments not yet approved by FDA
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