Cellular Processes and the Genetic Environment Comprehensive Solved Nursng Paper Example

Cellular Processes and the Genetic Environment Comprehensive Solved Nursng Paper Example

Strep throat is a prevalent human infection caused by group A Streptococcus bacterium. More than 600 million cases are reported globally (Dan et al., 2019). The primary clinical features presented in this case include tonsillar exudates and enlargement, fever, erythema, sore throat, and enlarged lymph nodes. This paper discusses the role of genetics in the disease, the symptoms, the physiologic response, the cells involved, and how gender affects the associated response.(Cellular Processes and the Genetic Environment Comprehensive Solved Nursng Paper Example)

Genetics

Genetics plays a vital role in the defensive response to bacterial infection and the degree of virulence. Dan et al. (2019) found that strep throat is common in children with reduced antibodies and smaller germinal centers. Moreover, children who experience recurrent strep throat have altered adaptive immune response towards infection by group A Streptococcus since they have risk alleles (HLA class II alleles) and the associated T follicular cells are cytotoxic toward B cells. Moreover, at-risk individuals have impaired anti-SpeA antibody titers that provide protective immunity to group A Streptococcus. These findings suggest that the susceptibility to strep throat is associated with HLS genetic differences among children. Children who cannot develop anti-SpeA immunity risk developing recurrent strep throat due to altered GC-TFH cells.(Cellular Processes and the Genetic Environment Comprehensive Solved Nursng Paper Example)

On the other hand, group A Streptococcus bacteria has multiple intracellular and extracellular virulence factors that aid tissue invasion. The numerous intracellular and extracellular factors are responsible for various disease expressions (Dan et al., 2019). The common virulence determinant of the group A Streptococcus bacteria is the M-protein in its cell wall, which contains anti-phagocytic and anti-complementary properties. The proteins interact with other plasma proteins, including fibrinogen, immunoglobin G, and C4-binding protein, eventually interfering with the adaptive and innate host immune system.(Cellular Processes and the Genetic Environment Comprehensive Solved Nursng Paper Example)

Symptoms

The patient presents symptoms such as sore throat, low-grade fever, pharynx redness, white exudates, tonsillar enlargement, and enlarged lymph nodes, which are characteristics of strep throat infections. The symptoms are a result of infection by the groups A Streptococcus bacteria. The exudate comprises cells, proteins, neutrophils, and leukocytes involved in eradicating the foreign pathogen, group A Streptococcus (Soderholm et al., 2018). Besides, tonsillar hypertrophy, i.e., the normal enlargement of the tonsils due to the proliferation of immune cells in the follicles and the surrounding tonsillar areas in response to the infection, eventually causing inflammation, irritation, redness, and excretion of exudates. Generally, cellular hypertrophy results from increased cell size and consequent enlargement of the affected organ (McCance & Huether, 2019).(Cellular Processes and the Genetic Environment Comprehensive Solved Nursng Paper Example)

Physiologic Response

The physiologic response involved includes tonsillar hypertrophy caused by the production of tonsillar exudates, redness, and sore throat resulting from the anti-inflammatory response to the streptococcus invasion. Tonsillar hypertrophy results from the increased hormonal demand and stimulation and other growth factors due to infection by the group A Streptococcus bacteria (Soderholm et al., 2018). Following the infection, the bacteria invade the pharyngeal mucosa, leading to an inflammatory response (Soderholm et al., 2018). The infections could be due to local or extracellular release of proteases and toxins. However, the adaptive and innate host immune system responses play a crucial role in initiating a defense reaction against the bacteria and are critical to the clinical manifestation of the infection. The swollen tongue and lips are hypersensitivity reactions associated with drug (amoxicillin) interactions. Hypersensitivity is an exaggerated immunologic response to an antigen (Vaillant et al., 2022).(Cellular Processes and the Genetic Environment Comprehensive Solved Nursng Paper Example)

Cells

Various cells are involved in the inflammatory immune response as streptococcus bacteria colonizes the palatine tonsil, which contains different cells that play a critical role in immune defense. These cells include neutrophils, epithelial, dendritic cells (DCs), and macrophages, which secrete various inflammatory mediators, including chemokines, cytokines, prostaglandins (PGs), and antimicrobial peptides (AMPs) (Soderholm et al., 2018). These various inflammatory mediators are responsible for the consequent inflammatory response to the streptococcus bacteria and aid in adaptive immunity. (Cellular Processes and the Genetic Environment Comprehensive Solved Nursng Paper Example)

Epithelial cells secret cytokines and AMPs, which signal other cells responsible for immune defense and provide a physical barrier protecting the body against streptococcus invasion (Soderholm et al., 2018). Neutrophils infiltrate the nasal-associated lymphoid tissue (NALT), killing the streptococcus bacteria by releasing antimicrobial peptides. On the other hand, mast cells are involved in the preliminary recognition and clearance of the streptococcus bacteria, leading to allergic responses by releasing TNF-α and histamine. Thus, mast cells are known to inhibit bacterial growth. The macrophages are resident of the pharyngeal and tonsillar tissues and contribute to controlling the streptococcus infection by producing reactive oxygen species and phagocytosis. Besides, the macrophages stimulate and differentiate the inflammatory monocytes in the infection site. Lastly, the dendritic cells are involved in priming the T cell response during the streptococcus bacterial infection, contributing to the maturation of other cells.(Cellular Processes and the Genetic Environment Comprehensive Solved Nursng Paper Example)

Gender

Gender is the other factor that would influence response to streptococcus infection. Females have more robust antigenic simulation or cellular and humoral immunity to infections than males (Cattalini et al., 2019). If the child, in this case, was a female, they could have had a mild response to the bacterial infection and would not need emergency intervention. However, having more immunity could increase immunopathology for some infections, predisposing the individuals to autoimmune infections. The gender differences in autoimmune responses are multifactorial and related to genetic and endocrine effects on human physiology and the immune system.(Cellular Processes and the Genetic Environment Comprehensive Solved Nursng Paper Example)

References

Cattalini, M., Soliani, M., Caparello, M. C., & Cimaz, R. (2019). Sex differences in pediatric rheumatology. Clinical reviews in allergy & immunology, 56(3), 293-307(Cellular Processes and the Genetic Environment Comprehensive Solved Nursng Paper Example). https://doi.org/10.1007/s12016-017-8642-3

Dan, J. M., Havenar-Daughton, C., Kendric, K., Al-Kolla, R., Kaushik, K., Rosales, S. L., … & Crotty, S. (2019). Recurrent group A Streptococcus tonsillitis is an immune susceptibility disease involving antibody deficiency and aberrant TFH cells. Science translational medicine, 11(478), eaau3776(Cellular Processes and the Genetic Environment Comprehensive Solved Nursng Paper Example). https://doi.org/10.1126/scitranslmed.aau3776

McCance, K. L. & Huether, S. E. (2019). Pathophysiology: The biologic basis for disease in adults and children (8th ed.). St. Louis, MO: Mosby/Elsevier.(Cellular Processes and the Genetic Environment Comprehensive Solved Nursng Paper Example)

Soderholm, A. T., Barnett, T. C., Sweet, M. J., & Walker, M. J. (2018). Group A streptococcal pharyngitis: Immune responses involved in bacterial clearance and GAS‐associated immunopathologies. Journal of leukocyte biology, 103(2), 193-213. (Cellular Processes and the Genetic Environment Comprehensive Solved Nursng Paper Example)https://doi.org/10.1189/jlb.4mr0617-227rr

Soderholm, A. T., Barnett, T. C., Sweet, M. J., & Walker, M. J. (2018). Group A streptococcal pharyngitis: Immune responses involved in bacterial clearance and GAS‐associated immunopathologies. Journal of leukocyte biology, 103(2), 193-213. (Cellular Processes and the Genetic Environment Comprehensive Solved Nursng Paper Example)https://doi.org/10.1189/jlb.4mr0617-227rr

Vaillant, A. A. J., Vashisht, R., & Zito, P. M. (2022). Immediate Hypersensitivity Reactions. In StatPearls [Internet]. StatPearls Publishing(Cellular Processes and the Genetic Environment Comprehensive Solved Nursng Paper Example). https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK513315/